MEDIA AUDIENCE THEORISTS
ALBERT BANDURA - MEDIA EFFECTS
- the idea that the media can implant ideas in the mind of the audience directly
- the idea that audiences acquire attitudes, emotional responses and new styles of conduct through modelling
- the idea that media representations of transgressive behaviour, such as violence or physical aggression, can lead audience members to imitate those forms of behaviour.
KEY CONCEPT
It is important to determine the effects that media products have on their audiences. Media effects theory often assumes a passive audience and focuses on the extent to which the media could be held responsible for problems in society.
Produced in the 1960s and 70s, much has changed in our understanding of audiences and the media since Bandura’s ‘bobo doll’ experiments and ‘social learning’ theory. In media studies today, it is common practice to debunk Bandura’s research for being out-dated and irrelevant.
KEY EXPERIMENT: THE BOBO DOLL
The bobo doll experiments (1961-63) focused on an adult modelling aggressive behaviour towards a self-righting doll to see whether children would imitate this behaviour. Generally, the children would imitate the aggressive behaviour modelled to them by an adult.
‘in the social learning system, new patterns of behaviour can be acquired through direct experience or by observing the behaviour of others’ - Albert Bandura
THE LINK TO THE MEDIA PRODUCTS
Bandura said there were two types of learning; by direct experience and through modeling. Bandura’s studies were mostly concerned with child behavioural psychology, but have been frequently applied to media effects debates.
‘there is a large body of research evidence showing that both children and adults can acquire attitudes, emotional responses, and new patterns of behaviour as a result of observing filmed or televised models’
- Albert Bandura
HOW IS THE THEORY USEFUL FOR MEDIA?
- May apply to a wide range of media products, including newspapers.
- Would most apply to newspaper messages that are delivered strongly and consistently across newspapers, eg. about the wrongness of terrorism.
- Draws attention to the need to investigate the direct effects on individuals who consume newspapers.
- Supports the argument that newspapers should be regulated to avoid public harm.
- For online news, supports the argument that the internet should be regulated to avoid public harm. eg. to remove fake news and terrorist propaganda.
MORAL PANICS
In what ways do certain sections of society ‘blame’ media platforms and products for negative behaviour?
- Violence in movies and video games are viewed as a significant risk factor for aggressive and violent behavior in children
- Video game controversies refers to a wide range of debates on the social effects of video games on players and broader society, as well as debates within the video game industry
- https://www.independent.co.uk/life-style/health-and-families/social-media-mental-health-negative-effects-depression-anxiety-addiction-memory-a8307196.html
- Social media platforms such as Instagram are relatively non-regulated meaning that people of any age, especially young, are able to view graphic, inappropriate or upsetting images or videos.
- Concerns over the affect of violent/ strong language within music/movies on impressionable people
- Fake news cause wide spread panic amongst audience members - starts a butterfly effect of unnecessary chaos e.g. Covid-19 caused a mass hysteria in which members of the public started to panic-buy a wide range of hygiene products.
It is claimed that the 10 year old killers of James Bulger in 1993 had seen Childs Play 3 prior to the attack. In the film, the evil doll Chucky dies after being splattered with paint and having its face caved in; James Bulger was splashed with paint and violently killed.
In 1999, two teenagers killed 13 people at their high school in Columbine, Colarado. In the aftermath of the massacre, multiple media products that the killers had access to were blamed, including the video game Doom, the film Natural Born Killers and the music of Marilyn Manson (although it was later found out they were not fans of his music).
MEDIA LANGUAGE EFFECTS
‘emotional responses can be developed observationally by witnessing the affective reactions of others undergoing painful or pleasurable experiences’ – Albert Bandura
In what ways do media producers manipulate empathy on the part of the audience through media language choices?
The main image of the 'i' newspaper is seen to be taken with a zoom-lens. Due to this, it depicts people on the beach as very clumped together and that they are completely ignoring the social distancing rules. Contrastingly, the main image used for 'The Daily Telegraph' is a bird's-eye shot and depicts two people laying on the beach, following the rules of social distancing. The use of camera angles manipulates how the audience see the issue. Through this, the newspapers can obtain their desired emotional reaction, whether it be shock or anger (in relation to the 'i'), by showing the audience only what they want them to see. Furthermore, the layout of the papers contributes to this as well. The 'i' newspaper is filled with advertisements and a wide range of colours, all drawing from their theme of 'chaos', whilst the 'Daily Telegraph' newspaper has a small, calm colour scheme and is mainly filled with copy. These media language techniques reinforce the types of audience reactions.
AUDIENCE OPINION ALTERED BY MEDIA MODELLING
MODELS
‘some complex behaviours, of course, can be produced only through the influence of models[…] where novel forms of behaviour can be conveyed only by social cues, modelling is an indispensable aspect of learning’ – Albert Bandura
It can be strongly argued that representations have a big impact on the audience consuming a media product.
THE EUROPEAN MIGRANT CRISIS
‘it is not uncommon for people to display strong emotional reactions towards certain things or classes of people on the basis of little or no personal contact with them’ – Albert Bandura
From early 2015 millions of refugees, asylum seekers and migrants have been arriving in the EU from many Muslim-majority countries.
Can you find any evidence of the impact the media coverage of the crisis has had, linked to the above quote from Albert Bandura?
- "Scenes of desperation, suffering and rescue that might normally be gathered by foreign correspondents in harder-to-access parts of the world were now readily available to reporters, news crews, filmmakers and artists at relatively low cost."
- "In all of these situations the news media were able to do their basic job in emergency situations, which is to communicate what’s happening, who’s affected, what’s needed the most. But this is usually more than a matter of relaying dry facts and figures. “Human stories” have the greatest currency among journalists, although it’s an odd term if you think about it."
- "...the most recognisable image of the refugee crisis in 2015: the picture of a Turkish police officer carrying the lifeless body of three-year-old Alan Kurdi away from the water’s edge on a beach near Bodrum...The image gained the status it did for a mix of reasons – political, commercial, but also aesthetic. One of the picture editors interviewed in the documentary commented on how the position of the figures in the photo resembled that of Michelangelo’s Pietà, an iconography of suffering and sacrifice that runs deep in European culture."
- "Germany and Sweden, for example, overwhelmingly used the terms ‘refugee’ or ‘asylum seeker’, while Italy and the UK press preferred the word ‘migrant’. In Spain, the dominant term was ‘immigrant’. These terms had an important impact on the tenor of each country’s debate. Media also differed widely in terms of the predominant themes to their coverage. For instance, humanitarian themes were more common in Italian coverage than in British, German or Spanish press. Threat themes (such as to the welfare system, or cultural threats) were the most prevalent in Italy, Spain and Britain."
HOW IS THE THEORY LIMITED?
- Originally developed to explain the effects of media with powerful audience positioning, such as television- newspaper representations of violence are less likely to produce imitative behaviour.
- Newspaper messages are likely to be contradicted by messages from politically and socially opposing newspapers (eg. the Guardian and the Mail)
- For online news, messages can be challenged by audiences in comments, tweets or other posts, reducing the effect of the original messages.
- Prioritizing the effects of the media on the audience may mean that the effects of the audience on the media are underestimated (see Jenkins and Shirky)
GERBNER: CULTIVATION MODEL
What is this? A Hypodermic Needle
What is it used for? A hypodermic needle is a hollow needle commonly used with a syringe to inject substances into the body or extract fluids from it. They may also be used to take liquid samples from the body, for example taking blood from a vein in venipuncture.
DECLINE OF THE HYPODERMIC NEEDLE MODEL
- The model was simplistic because it lumps everyone together. Largely used to examine how society were so convinced by Hitler in the 1930s.
- The idea that social issues were caused by the media was attractive to to politicians and still is today! It allows them to place blame elsewhere.
- For example, the reasons for Hitler's 'brainwashing' of society were complex and had a lot to do with the treaty imposed on Germany after WW1.
- The model was created in the 1930s when TV and Talking Pictures were just developing. Therefore, the censorship created as a consequence of this simplistic model seemed unfair and producers campaigned successfully to reduce censorship.
CULTIVATION ANALYSIS
- This followed the Hypodermic Needle Model.
- Gerbner was hired by the American Government who were concerned about the level of violence in society.
- The theory still sees the audience as passive recipients of the media, but instead of focusing on one-off behaviour- such as violence, swearing etc - the focus was on the cumulative impact of repeated exposure to similar media products containing similar messages and meaning.
Gerbner stated that TV has, over time, become not simply a leisure or entertainment platform but a key part of the socialism of young people into standardised social roles and behaviours.
Gerbner and Gross worked in the 1980s before the arrival of games consoles, the internet, and internet cable TV channels such as HBO and Sky. Their work was on the then dominant media platform of TV , but their model is now widely applied to all media products.
- How effective do you think this 1985 model is 40 years later?
- The slight vagueness of their theory allows it to still be applicable to modern day technology. The idea that TV (and news) has become a key part of the socialism of young people is still relevant to today's technology and media.
- Do you watch as much TV as teenagers 40 years ago?
- Taking into consideration the numerous platforms that can be used to watch TV, I believe I (as well as many others) consume a lot more TV than teenagers 40 years ago. With the rise in binge-watching, teenagers today can watch hours and hours of TV footage in one sitting.
- Could prolonged use of internet have same/less/more effect?
- When talking bout the amount of violence one could become witness to, the prolonged use of internet would have more of an effect due to its lack of regulation and censorship.
- There is also more of an effect when referencing the idea that it has become a key part of the socialism of young people.
TV IS POWERFUL
Cultivation Theory examines the long-term effects of television- that the more time people spend 'living' in the mediated television world, the more likely they are to believe that the real world is the same as the reality portrayed on television.
"Television is the source of the most broadly shared images and messages in history...Television cultivates from infancy the very predispositions and preferences that used to be acquired from other primary sources... The repetitive pattern of television's messages and images forms forms the mainstreams of a common symbolic environment"
- Gerbner: Living with Television; the dynamics of cultivation process (1986)
TV SHAPES THE WAY WE THINK...
Cultivation Theory unlike Hypodermic Theory - doesn't predict what we will do after watching a violent television program. Instead, Gerbner suggests it constructs a connection with the often violent TV we watch - both news and fiction - and the the real world we live in.
We are storytelling species; we make sense of the world through story (TV+ other media products such as advertising, social media etc.). Cultivation theory states that the media heavily influence perceptions of the real world.
"The substance of the consciousness cultivated by TV is not so much specific attitudes and opinions as more basic assumptions about the facts of life and standards of judgment on which conclusions are based"
MEAN WORLD SYNDROME
Gerbner went on to develop these ideas further, suggesting that TV influences its audience so much that their real world view and perceptions of the world start reflecting what they repeatedly see on TV.
TV contributes to the way people perceive the social reality of the world they live in and effects audience attitudes and values.
Mean World Syndrome = prolonged and repeated exposure to violent media makes and audience less likely to be shocked by violence. Being desensitised to violence, the audience may be more likely to behave violently.
Audiences, over time, become desensitised to violence and explicit sexuality. Mean World Syndrome means that we view the world as harsher and crueler than it really is due to the media we consume.
TASK
In what ways might the cover for The Last of Us Part 2 offer evidence of Mean World Syndrome and desensitisation?
Mean World Syndrome can be defined as society viewing the world as harsher and crueler than it really is due to the media we consume. This, as well as the idea of desensitisation, can be applied to this cover of The Last of Us Part 2, due to its violent nature. The close up of a girl's face with blood splattered across it is one example that hold very brutal and savage connotations to it. This is furthered by the very realistic design and appearance of the girl - this likens it with reality and presents evidence that supports the Mean World Syndrome. Moreover, the use of a girl, in place of a man, is another way of projecting the idea of desensitisation, as in earlier years, a rough and aggressive depiction of a woman would have been very unlikely to be seen in media. Furthermore, the angered look of emotion on her face reinforces this ideology that women are no longer pictured as delicate and fragile, but tough and powerful.
HOW IS THE THEORY USEFUL FOR NEWS?
- May apply to a wide range media products, including newspapers, where content analysis is widely used to study consisted in messages.
- Would most apply to newspaper messages that are delivered strongly and consistently across newspapers e.g. about the wrongness of terrorism.
- For online news, would most apply to audiences within a digital bubble who consume messages from only a narrow range of sources that target their demographic and psychographic (e.g. news feeds on Facebook).
- Draws attention to the need to investigate the longer-term effects on audiences - violent representations in newspapers and news sites may create the belief that the world is an inherently dangerous place.
- Supports the arguments that newspapers should be regulated to avoid public harm.
HOW IS THE THEORY LIMITED?
- The theory was developed to explain the power of television, so may be less applicable to newspapers, where media consumption rarely as heavy (although consider recent news consumption due to Covid)
- Newspapers messages are likely to be contradicted by messages from politically and socially opposing newspapers.
- The theory may be outdated for online news e.g. online newspaper messages will be challenged by audiences in comments, tweets or other posts, reducing the effect of the original messages.
- Prioritising the effects of the media on the audience may mean that the effects of the audience on the media are underestimated (see Jenkins and Shirky).
STUART HALL AND RECEPTION THEORY
A LEADING CULTURAL THEORIST IN THE UK
- Hall’s key idea is of reception theory.
- He believes that the audience does not simply passively accept a text — whether a book or a film — and that an element of activity becomes involved.
- The person negotiates the meaning of the text. The meaning depends on the cultural background of the person. The background can explain how some readers accept a given reading of a text while others reject it.
- Hall believes the meaning of a text lies somewhere between the producer and the reader. Even though the producer encodes the text in a particular way, the reader will decode it in a slightly different manner — what Hall calls the margin of understanding.
Encoding is the sending of a message so that another person can understand it. There must be shared rules or symbols, and it is important for the sender to think of his or her audience and how they will interpret the message. During the production of the message, the sender uses verbal cues, signs, and body language that he or she believes the person or group receiving the message will understand (Hall, 1973). Though the person sending the message may believe that they are being clear, Hall believed that the meaning is not fixed, and is created along with the message (Davis, 2004). Because the encoding process is usually a result of one sender, only the ideologies and beliefs of the sender are contained so they are encoded (Davis, 2004). As a result, there can be some distortion when the message is received. Here, the receiver’s ideologies will either be dominant, negotiated, or oppositional.
CANCER: You fiercely believe in an honest approach to love and life, Cancer. There is no better movie to honor that approach and inspire your inner intellect and compassion than Dead Poets Society, on Amazon. Pay homage to the people in your life who helped inspire you as you stand tall from the seat of your couch and recite, “oh captain, my captain!” This emotionally empowering film will touch your soul because of the beautifully energetic story line. While unconventional, fellow Cancer Robin Williams gives an impressive and inspirational performance. You’ll be charmed right from the start because you’ll identify with the underlining themes of the film. Be sure to invite your closest friends for a night with this classic.
THE DIFFERENT POSITIONS
- Dominant-hegemonic position- presents a ‘preferred reading’ that accepts the text’s messages
- Negotiated Position- the audience is reacting with a mixture of acceptance and rejection.
- Oppositional reading- the reader rejects both the overt message and its underlying ideological assumption
BLACK LIVES MATTER
This is a great article which clearly outlines the theory and then applies it to Black Lives Matter
‘The hashtag #BlackLivesMatter was created with the simple and seemingly uncontroversial goal of promoting that a black life matters just as much as every other life. Surprisingly, many people reacted to Black Lives Matter negatively (Sanchez, 2016). No matter how often the group repeated the original intended meaning of the slogan, criticism continued. How did a group with a specific purpose have so many different meanings attributed to it? How did it become so controversial? How do we make sense of this phenomenon? Stuart Hall’s Audience Reception Theory can help us make sense of this confusing phenomenon. Hall proposed that the meaning of a message is not fixed. The meaning is created along with the message and there can be distortion when the message is received (Davis, 2004).’
APPLY THE THEORY TO QUEER EYE:
- How has the producer encoded the text to create a certain meaning?
- How will these audiences decode the text in different ways?
- Miss Davies (Age 34, English Teacher, Educated to degree level, Lives in a city)
- Me (Age 17-18, Sixth Form Student)
- Miss Davies' Dad - Keith (Age 62, Builder/Landlord, Educated to GCSEs, Lives in the suburbs)
1) Queer Eye - "The style experts forge relationships with men and women who often have different beliefs from them, leading to moments of social commentary interspersed with style advice. Advising people in need of lifestyle makeovers are food and wine specialist Antoni Porowski, interior designer Bobby Berk, grooming consultant Jonathan Van Ness, fashion designer Tan France and culture expert Karamo Brown"
- The show depicts 5 queer men that create relationships with men (and women) by giving them style advice and lifestyle makeovers.
- It is a show that fully supports the LGBTIQ+ community, with the Fab 5 not only giving style advice, but delivering movements of social commentary.
This is a show review I found (for Queer Eye) by a women who seems to match the audience profile for "Miss Davies":
"I'm not a huge TV person, however every so often I like to sit back and zone out. I was scanning Netflix and decided to see what the show was about.... Let me tell you all I love these gentlemen. I just watched the final episode of season 2; what a great finale to an absolute adorable, heart felt, caring, funny, sensitive, endearing program! I realized there are no more episodes. I'm so heart broken. I had to go online and make sure there will be season 3. You couldn't have paired together a better bunch of men. I cry, I laugh, I tease my hubby about how he needs to take a lesson from these guys lol specially when Tan pulled out the cargo shorts lmao, and I am in awe at how they deeply touch lives on and off the screen. Changing stereotypes one episode at a time. Reinforcing that love should be your guide. Each person has a specialty they bring to the table. They collaborate plan, repurpose (self, soul and surroundings). Karamo brings wisdom and self love with planning and technique; positive thinking, and training, helping you find yourself again, your inner super hero. He def is a stand out! Tan revamps style making each soul come alive again, feel good again, walking tall and confident in a style personality appropriate. Wow just wow. He also takes time to get to know his counter parts I melt each time he sits down and gets personal. Antoni heats up the kitchen fueling the body while touching the mind getting you back in the kitchen. We know the heart of every home begins in the kitchen (I am so making some of those recipes), and he is so sweet I adore him, you can tell he is is deeply moved and effected by these stories. He has great old soul and some serious insight. Bobby repurposes with a purpose making a neglected space feel love again returning self worth to kindred hearts, I am so blown away when he gets done revamping. How does he know exactly what the space needs crazy! He is so darn talented, strong and vulnerable at the same time. So smart! and Jonathan builds esteem with a natural flare for beauty, but he is so much more then teaching self care he has a natural ability to know exactly what your missing in your routine - in your life. But more than that he is vibrant and a free spirit his aura appears light and loving. He may not realize it but he removes the awkward air in the room he lightens the load, the mood. He makes everyone feel like a king or queen. We could take a lesson from him & Hes great with children!! I could go on and on Ok I can admit I did a queer eye marathon lmao. Watch the show you'll love them too!!"
HOW IS THE THEORY IS USEFUL FOR NEWS?
- May apply to a wide range of media products, including newspapers.
- Draws attention to the range of possible audience readings while acknowledging the role of ideological power in creating dominance within newspaper messages and values.
HOW IS THE THEORY LIMITED?
- Assumes that there is one dominant meaning to which the audience responds- does not fit messages with a multitude of different possible meanings (eg. deeply ironic messages).
JENKINS - FANDOM
- Fan culture- often referred to as Fandom, describes social communities built around the shared enjoyment of a particular aspect of popular culture- books, movies, TV shows, bands, sports or sports teams etc. Examples include Star Trek (The Trekkies) and Harry Potter. Trekkies created Fanzines but the arrival of the internet made it easier to create fan groups.
- Fandom is an example of what are called participatory cultures (fans acting not only as consumers but also as producers and creators of creative media).
JENKINS FIVE ELEMENTS OF PARTICIPATORY CULTURE:
Has low barriers to artistic expression and communal engagement
The resources required are within the grasp of most fans. The requirement is not for artistic merit/quality but for the enthusiasm and willingness to engage in the activity - costuming for Trekkies; creating artwork for Assassin's Creed, points of view on characters or action in Tomb Raiders. Fans feel empowered to contribute, no matter the quality of their effort they will not judged.
Supportive of creating and sharing creations with others
A willingness to share and to receive the efforts of other members of the fan community. It is seen as a community gathered by a shared passion and desire for involvement and has a supportive emotional tone. It is about the taking part, the sense of shared passion and belonging.
A form of mentorship in which experienced fans pass knowledge to novices
There are those, who either through longevity - they were there first - their vast knowledge, or the scope or quality of their contributions, are seen as key figures within each fandom community. Rather than leaders, all members are encouraged and support the efforts of others but weight is given to the opinions/work of some who help other fit into the fandom community.
A belief that such contributions matter
The sense that being part of community and contributing is worthwhile and has purpose. Everyone is welcome to be involved.
Social connection between members supportive of all fans opinions and contributions
Websites and social media have become a means of keeping the community informed and aware of their passion and what others are doing.
- In Fandom, Jenkins states that interaction with media becomes a social activity, allowing fans to build communities in which they can express themselves.
- They can create spaces where they can critique prescriptive ideas of gender, sexuality and other norm suggested by the media industry.
BRONIES - THE MALE FANS OF MY LITTLE PONY
- Bronies are male fans of My Little Pony, a TV show based on the 80s toy
- Although women can be Bronies, 80% are male
- Most are aged between 16-35
- At conventions, Bronies dress up as their pony alter egos or characters
HOW IS THE THEORY USEFUL FOR NEWS?
- Draws attention to the potentially revolutionary effect of online media on news and the threat this represents to traditional models of news gathering and distribution.
- Highlights how online newspapers increasingly rely on participatory media such as Facebook, Instagram and Twitter to disseminate news.
- Draws attention to the role of participatory culture in developing citizen journalism.
HOW IS THE THEORY LIMITED?
- Does not really apply to print newspapers due to their traditional, centralised production.
- Fandom and participatory culture are less likely to occur in relation to online newspapers than in other areas of the internet due to their content and the ethos of professional journalism.
- Its optimistic view of the power of online audiences may underestimate the power of media conglomerates to shape and control online content and the importance of journalistic professional practice (see Curran and Seaton, and Hesmondhalgh).
- May underestimate the effect of media products on audiences (see Bandura and Gerbner)
CLAY SHIRKY - THE 'END OF AUDIENCE'
SHIRKY - ACCEPTED IDEAS ABOUT AUDIENCE
- The media landscape used to be professional producers and amateur consumers. That divide is now less clear.
- The relationship between media and audience is fluid.
- There is no longer assumed to be one way of interpreting a product or one audience response.
- Audiences are made up of individuals whose social and cultural experiences impact their response to media.
- Media products and industries are acutely aware of their audience and the strategies needed to engage them.
WHAT'S DIFFERENT?
- For the first time young audiences are watching less TV
- Audiences are groups that come together electronically and communicate globally
- Audiences have opportunities to interact with media and are actively involved in production
- Changing technologies impact the way in which audiences access and consume media.
- Audiences use media in different ways which reflect demographic, personal identity and social or cultural elements.
- Audiences use the internet to construct identities
SOME KEY TERMS
- Consumption: the act of using resources, goods or a service
- Technological convergence: technology advancing, merging and integrating
- Prosumer: a producer-consumer or a technological proliferation and convergence has enabled consumers to be content producers too
- The most important part of networking is access to others
- Social media allows us to be connected
- Social media allows us to create media
- Low quality allows us to make media quickly and share it quickly
- The fact this media is only popular for a short amount of time doesn't matter as it takes a short amount of time to create
- If you buy the means of consumption you also own the means of production
- Media is now a cheap, globally available tool for online sharing
Comments
Post a Comment